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Wheel Technology

Introduction
Wading through marketing hype
Pitfalls of stock or pre-built wheels
Myths of radial lacing
Spoke construction and material
Rim construction
Rim profiles
Rim material
Nipples
Hubs
Hand-built wheels
Summary

Introduction

This is not designed to teach wheel building, repair, or truing. There are several good books on the subject for those interested in learning (Jobst Brandt penned The Bicycle Wheel, one of the best). You will, however, find a frank and honest discussion of wheels, their limitations, the physics, technologies, methodologies, and what makes a "good" wheel. No favoritism, no BS, no sales pitches, no kidding. Hopefully this bolsters your determination to find the best product through effective and easy-to-understand explanations.


The wheel is a dynamic instrument, one of man's greatest inventions, composed of a solid piece or many parts that shift, move, and flex under load. The hub is at the center of the wheel, the point around which the wheel rotates. Spokes connect the hub to the rim. Rims are the round part that form the skeleton of the wheel. Nipples secure the spokes to the rim. Rim tape protects the inner tube from being punctured by the spokes, nipples, or spoke holes. Inner tubes hold the air. The tire encases the tube and is the part that contacts the ground.


The most rudimentary wheel might be a stone wheel with a hole through the center. The most advanced, a space age design where the wheel rides on a magnetic levitation hub (like a MAG-LEV train). Some may be used for locomotion when energy is directly applied to the wheel. Others, like wagons or trailers, don't have direct energy sources and merely rotate in response to external forces.



Wading Through the Marketing Hype

About 15 years ago, one company introduced the concept of wheel systems. The hypothesis used for this experiment was that a wheel could be designed better if it was treated as a whole and not a conglomeration of stock hubs, spokes, or rims.


Since then this company has arguably done more to advance wheel technology. On the flip side they have done more damage to the wheel industry starting with their blatant disregard for the laws of physics and slick marketing campaigns that pay homage to the most dishonest politicians. Unfortunately many other companies have jumped on the bandwagon in what seems to be an industry-wide conspiracy to come up with the most asinine wheels. And there are plenty of them.


The fantastic claims used by wheel manufacturers can be likened to the fitness industry. How many infomercials promise leaner abs, more muscles, better body composition, and fat loss through the use of their magic machine...be it a plastic wrap, electronic gadget, a futuristic-looking device, a set of elastic straps with handles, or a meal plan? All of this in only three seconds per day with a 100% money-back guarantee! Charts, scientific research, and testimonials prove their claims.


What you won't hear is the truth. Get off your pathetic, obese, donut-eating ass and exercise! Genetics or your supposed "low" metabolism has nothing to do with it. You're lazy, ill-informed, and full of excuses 99%+ of the time (rather harsh but a Chef Gordon Ramsay beatdown is enlightening, just avoid those weight loss TV reality shows). There is no magic pill, no special device, no end-all-be-all gadget to good health. These companies stay in business because the same gullible people come back time and time again, hoping the next gadget will work.


Sounds like bike wheels that change year after year. The ones that always seem to be on the cutting edge, with new advances, new patents, new trademarks, nifty new names, new technologies, new aerodynamic benefits, better stiffness, more compliance, new materials, lighter weight, new hub design, advanced testing protocols to prove these claims, titanium this, carbon fiber that, reinforced spoke bed this, proprietary spokes that, the ones that can't be fixed, repaired, or trued,...SHUT THE FUCK UP ALREADY!


The truth isn't effective for the bike industry, doesn't work in the fitness industry, and doesn't employ politicians. So I can sit here all day and tout the benefits of my hand-built wheels and how they outperform stock wheels. Or why my exercise or diet program would work better than any infomercial (used to be a personal trainer, fitness instructor, and fitness educator). Or why a bicycle should be assembled with something equivalent to my race-quality assembly.


Complacency is easier than change, peer pressure has a profound effect on the masses, and brainwashing doesn't work on educated people. Discriminating individuals who seek something better reward my sincere efforts with logical decisions. My voice is a scant whisper in the din of inane and jumbled hype, easily dismissed because it's not what people expect or want to hear. Certainly not what wheel manufacturers are saying, or people who use the wheels, definitely not water cooler talk at the local bike shop. I'm not going to compete against the misrepresentations the consumer has been fed.


Pitfalls of Stock and Pre-built Wheels

If only it was as simple as opening a new box of wheels and slapping some rubber and gears on them....


Will your new wheels be checked thoroughly both at the factory and by your mechanic? Probably not by either one. Most mechanics take them out of the box and use them as is without inspecting for or fixing damage, build quality, or consistency (ignore the spoke tensiometer, dishing gauge, and truing stand). That's the beauty of pre-built wheels from a shop owner's or mechanic's standpoint: pull them out of the box, add some rubber and gears, good to go after 10 minutes.


Some wheels have statistically significant failure rates right out of the box. And, despite what you might think, wheels are built incorrectly from the factory: spokes going to the wrong hole (entire wheel laced incorrectly), spokes not crossed properly, spokes that are too long, too short, wrong size nipples to name a few. For something so important - it's called a bicycle for a reason, it has two wheels - there's no excuse for a junk wheel to make it to the consumer after passing through as many hands as it must.


I do not install new wheels until I have adjusted the hubs and dialed them in (trueness, roundness, dish, and tension) as precisely as one of my hand-built wheels. So the most annoying thing on stock wheels aside from ignoring physics, of course, is the ridiculous amount of time to dial them in and dealing with the issues from all the steps they skip.


Why should it take upwards of 45 minutes re-truing, re-dishing, re-tensioning, re-rounding, replacing broken parts and stripped nipples, undoing the superglue they use for thread-locking compound on a new $3500 wheelset? Isn't the manufacturer supposed to do this? Judging from the quality of product that leaves their factory, they don't care or they are incompetent. They do care (about making the sale), so that leaves the latter.


Standards and tolerances that any accomplished wheelbuilder considers acceptable are hard-won at best for many pre-built wheels. In the thousands of new wheels I've installed I can count on one hand the number of wheels that have been ready-to-go as they sit according to the physical measurements. Whether or not they used spoke prep, lubrication, pre-stressing, etc. is immaterial but the odds favor a big fat NO.


Not every rider uses their bike in the same manner. Are they all 120lb mountain goats? Is their budget unlimited, their time unimportant? Does everyone like to have run-of-the-mill stuff without customization or individualization? Is it possible to make a wheel that meets everyone's requirements all of the time, or even make a selection of wheels that randomly meets these guidelines some of the time? There is going to be a serious compromise somewhere.


Proprietary parts spell trouble. What if your wheel breaks? Will the local bike shop in Peru be able to fix it? Will you have to send the entire wheel back to the manufacturer wasting your time, money, and not riding your bike for 3 weeks, 2 months, or longer? Was your wheel designed to be obsolete in two years, or worse, a mid-year change? Or is it flat-out unrepairable, a broken spoke means a new wheel?


Here's an example of the &%@?*$ on a certain carbon fiber spoked wheel, famous for recalls and denials because the company has too much money invested in their 3rd century B.C. "wagon wheel" technology and 21st century marketing campaign to abandon a faulty, dangerous design. Here are the over-engineered steps necessary to true the front wheel:

Or re-something like that. Too many "re" steps, the only one missing is "re: GET RID OF THIS WHEEL DESIGN!" These wheels are only good for making chopsticks out of their tubular carbon spokes and wheel throwing competitions at the mountain bike festival, I certainly wouldn't eat with them. Oh, and showing the absolute worst wheel design in history on sooo many levels.


Overlooking the laws of physics or ignoring field observations to find something positive to say doesn't cut it. End of story, bottom line. Mother Nature can be real nasty when Her rules are broken. There is a long list of no-nos but two disturbing trends common on many wheels really slap physics in the face: radial lacing and non-steel spokes, i.e. aluminum and carbon fiber.



Myths of Radial Lacing

The discussion about radial lacing on a bicycle shall only apply to wheels that have forces applied at the hub: disc brake wheels (braking forces applied to the disc which is connected to the hub) and rear wheels (pedaling forces applied to the gears which are attached to the hub). These work the same for the sake of argument. There may be some freak forces on a radial front wheel under very unusual circumstances but not for our purposes.


A quick analysis of the kinetic events that transmit forces from the hub to the ground highlight some simple laws of physics. Due to the way force is applied at the hub, the wheel components must be in a particular orientation for the forces to be transmitted through the wheel. Basically, when the spokes are at a 90 degree angle relative to the hub body and rim they are unable to transmit rotational forces. Only when the spokes are at a tangential angle do they transmit rotational forces and cause the rear wheel to move or a disc brake wheel to stop.


In order for a radial-laced wheel to transmit forces to the ground the hub must rotate in place and spokes must flex and stretch to change the spoke-to-hub angle from 90 degrees to a tangential angle. The wheel must move in a manner which destroys its integrity and natural alignment. This places tremendous stresses on the hub and spokes as they go through loading and unloading cycles, ultimately robbing energy from the system, too. Physics 101.


Here's an example that is more easily understood. Will a ball roll if it is on flat ground? No, but it will on an incline. Will that same ball move on a flat surface if you blow on it vertically, directly from above? No, but it will when the wind has any horizontal direction. Too simple? OK, but they are very realistic analogies.


A more purposeful example: how do you get a shower curtain to move? Pull it in the direction you want it to move. Pull directly down with all the force in the world and the curtain will not slide, it will just sit in place because you are pulling at a 90 degree angle relative to the shower curtain rod (like a ball on a flat surface or a vertical wind). There are no locomotive or vector forces in any direction except down.


However, if you pull the shower curtain in one direction the effective angle of force has been changed from 90 degrees. Maybe it is only 89 degrees but this is enough of a tangential angle to transmit forces, albeit very weakly and inefficiently. A tangential angle is anything other than 90 degrees. The smaller the angle - say 45 degrees - and the shower curtain zooms across the rod as lesser angles trasmit forces much more efficiently. Vector analysis and some trigonometry can accurately compute the forces.


Like a shower curtain that will not move until it is pulled in one direction, a radial-laced wheel cannot "move" until the spokes are "pulled to one direction". The only way they can be pulled to one direction occurs when the hub rotates relative to the spokes and rim. The hub has to wind up like a clock mainspring before the wheel "works", the spokes have to stretch or something else has to give. On the contrary, a wheel that is not radial laced - even a 1-cross pattern - automatically incorporates a desirable tangential angle as part of the construction and does not have to twist or rotate the hub to transmit forces.


No competent manufacturer has full radial lacing on rear wheels or disc brake wheels. They try to skirt the laws of physics by lawyering up with radial lacing on one side and cross-lacing on the other (why they think this is acceptable is beyond my understanding). The radically foolish manufacturers have radial lacing on the drive side of the rear wheel. Pedaling forces are applied on the drive side where stability is most important, not a good place for radial spokes.


A cursory inspection will reveal that few stock disc brake wheels use radial lacing. Which begs two questions:

1. If manufacturers are so confident that radial lacing is viable on wheels then why don't they use the same lacing pattern for disc brake wheels (hint: poor lacing patterns on their regular wheels will not support the dynamic loads from disc brakes)?

2. If it ain't good enough to be used for stopping (i.e. braking) then how can it be used for going (i.e. pedaling, locomotion, directions vector forces, etc)?

Granted, the braking forces on disc brake wheels are much more powerful than even the best sprinter can muster in an all out effort. Still, strong riders can put down some serious whoop-de-ass and need a stable wheel.


One wheel construction method does not have to follow this model: solid wheels that are molded as one piece. Tri-spoke carbon wheels like those from HED are a one-piece design and do not have the same constraints as a wheel made from a hub, spokes, and rim. The individual parts in a typical wheel move around if ever so slightly but a solid wheel essentially has no moving parts. Aside from some imperceptible flex when force is applied, the force transmission is almost instantaneous and very efficient. Still, a spindly spoke structure will not be up to the task.


Weight savings??? - Radial lacing does not save any appreciable weight compared to non-radial lacing. Using a very beefy 2.0mm stainless spoke, a 48 hole wheel with radial lacing will save no more than 20 grams compared to the same wheel with a 5-cross pattern. For most wheels, the weight savings would be less than 1/4 that amount. Wow, a whopping 4 gram weight savings, about as much weight as a healthy fart! Skimping on the strength of the wheel for such a paltry amount is silly. Yeah it is rotational weight but it's statistically insignificant. Here's a chart for a quick breakdown of some values:


Weight Savings: Radial -vs- Maximum Cross
DT SWISS SPOKE TYPE MAX 
 CROSS 
   2.0mm      1.8mm   2.0/1.5/2.0mm
 HOLES    20  7.9g6.4g5.0g2x
246.9g5.6g4.4g2x
2812.5g10.1g8.0g3x
3211.0g8.9g7.0g3x
3610.4g8.4g6.6g4x
4015.8g12.7g10.0g4x
4820.2g16.3g12.9g5x
Interpreting the table - Weights listed under each spoke type for a given number of holes represent the weight savings for a radially-laced wheel compared to a wheel with the maximum allowable spoke crosses (found in MAX CROSS column). This applies only to the spoke weight, the rim and nipple weights will obviously remain unchanged.

* 32 hole, 3-cross, 2.0mm spokes - 11.0g more than radial
* 24 hole, 2-cross, 2.0/1.5/2.0mm spokes - 4.4g more than radial
* 40 hole, 4-cross, 1.8mm spokes - 12.7g more than radial

The average weight of a 264mm 2.0mm spoke is under 7.0g so most radial stock wheels barely save the weight of one spoke. Yes, one (1) spoke, roughly the weight of two pennies.

Stronger??? - Some evidence suggests that radial wheels may have more lateral stiffness than other lacing patterns but they are more subject to problems from damage or loose spokes. Normal wheels have a 2- or 3-cross pattern. Each time a spoke crosses over another spoke it increases the wheel's overall strength. Touching spokes make it even stronger as does tying, soldering, and twisting spokes together. Further, crossed spokes spread forces over a greater area on the rim and hub since the spokes come from different locations and different angles. The intertwining and crossing of spokes automatically lock the hub in position.


Spoke tension on radial wheels must be higher than normal wheels. Hubs are specifically designed to withstand the shearing and pulling forces or they will be torn apart. For many years a large bike company was radially lacing hubs that, according to the hub manufacturer, were unsuited for the purpose (layman's terms: unsafe and immediately voided the warranty). Complaints fell on deaf ears, just another example of the bike industry screwing over the consumer. American bicycle technology, huh?


The problem of spoke tension becomes more concerning on rear wheels. Radial spokes must have higher tension to do the same job as regular spokes. Due to the space allowed for the cassette, the rear wheel already has uneven spoke tension on drive and non-drive sides. Drive-side spokes are significantly tighter than non-drive spokes. Many manufacturers have begun to design rims with an offset to help balance spoke tension, even designed hubs that do the same.


I'm certain that most shops who buy into the radial spoke myth do not understand the physics of the wheel. The manufacturers' non-disclosure policy has deftly steered the shops away from asking the important questions. The consumer places their trust in shops and manufacturers but they are certainly not being fully educated by either one. Then the "well everyone has these wheels and they seem to be holding up fine" lemmings mentality emboldens the scam. Almost all large companies use radial lacing on rear wheels but Mavic, Shimano, Zipp, FSA, and Spinergy do or have repeatedly done so on the drive side (triple yikes, more companies will follow I'm sure!).


Spoke Material and Construction

Normal construction - A spoke has a threaded section that attaches to the nipple, a shaft, and a head which anchors the spoke to the hub. Spokes can be straight gauge (same thickness along the entire length), butted (thicker sections at the ends, also called double- or triple-butted), bladed, or ovalized. They are constructed from a solid piece of wire that is forged, bent, threaded, and colored to get the hundreds of different spoke lengths and types.


J-bend spokes account for the majority of spokes used in all wheels, easily identified by the "hook" at the end where it mates with the hub. The bend doesn't prevent the spoke from falling out of the hub but it serves other purposes. It steadies the spoke so it doesn't spin when turning the nipple and provides a bit more stability for the hub and spoke contact areas.


Straight-pull spokes do not have any bends. They must be used on a hub designed for straight-pull spokes. Truing wheels with these spokes is a major pain in the ass because they have a tendency to twist as the nipple is turned. Then you need a set of pliers to hold the spoke in place. And another set of hands if things don't cooperate. Spoke replacement is a bit more labor-intensive.


Seems pretty simple, J-bend and straight-pull. Enter the stock wheels and throw all of this out the window. You'll find spokes with threads on both ends, spokes made from many pieces glued and bonded together, flexible spokes, impossibly rigid spokes, hollow spokes, machined spokes, two spokes in one, blah!


Steel - The most reliable and really the only acceptable material to use for spokes is steel. Its physical properties work exceptionally well for spokes. Steel is very resilient and capable of flexing bazillions of times without deformation, elongation, or fatigue. The fatigue life is extraordinary for steel so the constantly changing forces experienced by every spoke during every revolution will not markedly change the useful lifespan of the spoke. Stainless steel spokes are almost impervious to corrosion and oxidation and are found on performance wheels. Galvanized steel or plain steel spokes are found on entry-level bikes.


Steel has a fantastic ability to return to its original shape or position provided it does not flex beyond its elastic limit. Fortunately it has a very generous elastic limit (the point of flexing or bending when the metal no longer returns to its original position). Even when the elastic limit is exceeded steel retains almost all of its strength, sustains minimal damage, and many times may be returned to the original position without a great effect on performance.


There are slight variations in the measurements of spokes among the different manufacturers. The radius of the bend, taper of the head, and overall "height" of the elbow section vary enough to make some more suitable in certain hubs than others. Silver is the standard color, black second in line. More colors are popping up from some no-name companies, better to stick with the big boys.


Aluminum - Once considered a precious metal exponentially more expensive and valuable than gold (boy how times have changed), it is now one of the least expensive metals. Aluminum is lighter and stiffer than steel. Its fatique life and elastic properties pale in comparison to steel. Aluminum is not a good material for applications which require repeated loading, unloading, and elasticity. It is significantly weakened once it exceeds its miniscule elastic limit. Failures often occur suddenly and without warning.


Manufacturers try to substitute aluminum for steel but have to use much more aluminum to accomplish the same task. The theory is to rely on the metal's stiffness to prevent it from failing thus attempting to bypass its limited elastic properties and low fatigue life. If the task is not suited for aluminum to begin with it is a losing situation.


Huge spokes aren't very aerodynamic, either. Aluminum corrodes easily and has to be painted or coated. The tendency for aluminum to seize or galvanically corrode is the nature of the material: an aluminum rim with aluminum nipples and aluminum spokes are guaranteed to seize.


All aluminum spokes are proprietary, too, a pain in the butt getting replacements. Do the research yourself because all those companies that make aluminum spokes are 100% positive that aluminum's shortfalls don't apply to them. Companies that use aluminum spokes: Mavic, Fulcrum (which is Campagnolo for all intents and purposes), Industry 9, (more companies to follow I'm sure).


Titanium - These are a million times better than aluminum in just about every way. They are a heckuva lot springier than steel and generally do not work well for heavier or more powerful riders. They are lighter than steel, much more expensive, but really a novelty.


Titanium will never rust or oxidize but has a tendency to galvanically weld itself to many metals which can be problematic when the spoke fuses to the nipple, the wheel can't be trued. The physical properties are exceptional as titanium can withstand amazing forces, has a fatigue life to die for, and is very elastic. Definitely the most fashionable choice when anodized into a rainbow of colors. Most titanium-spoked wheels are custom builds.


Carbon Fiber - Bad idea. Avoid. Catastrophic failure inevitable. Unless you make or sell them in which case they are the best thing since sliced bread. Everything in a carbon-spoked wheel is proprietary so repairs are costly and potentially time-consuming. The average city might only have one dealer who sells these wheels and carrying all the replacement parts is not gonna happen. Hope it isn't your unlucky day. These wheels should be banned.


These spokes cannot be made entirely from carbon which means the shaft is bonded to the ends. Or there is a metal sleeve bonded within the spoke to attach to the hub. Lots of manufacturing, lots of places things can go wrong. Mavic has been the most adventurous with carbon fiber spokes but that's no adventure the majority are willing to take.


Other Materials - Vectran is a space-age fiber material. Seen on some Spinergy wheels, these fibers have to be bonded to a metal head and some metal part to anchor it to the hub.



Spoke Comparison Charts
DT SWISS
SPOKE DESCRIPTION (each)  WEIGHT FOR GIVEN NUMBER OF SPOKES 
type  weight     cost    20 24 28 32 36 40 48
 Revolution 1.8/1.5/1.8mm4.08g$1.3582g98g114g131g147g163g196g
 Aerolite 2.0/2.3/0.9mm4.34g$4.2087g104g122g139g156g174g208g
 Aerolite 2.0/2.3/0.9mm*4.34g$4.6387g104g122g139g156g174g208g
 Revolution 2.0/1.5/2.0mm4.42g$1.3588g106g124g141g159g177g212g
 Revolution 2.0/1.5/2.0mm*4.42g$1.5488g106g124g141g159g177g212g
 Competition 1.8/1.6/1.8mm4.86g$1.2097g117g136g156g175g194g233g
 Super Comp 2.0/1.7/1.8mm* 4.97g$1.5499g119g139g159g179g199g239g
 Aero Speed 1.8/2.3/1.2mm5.55g$1.65111g133g155g178g200g222g266g
 Champion 1.8mm5.61g$0.57112g135g157g180g202g224g269g
 Competition 2.0/1.8/2.0mm5.97g$1.20119g143g167g191g215g239g287g
 Competition 2.0/1.8/2.0mm*5.97g$1.45119g143g167g191g215g239g287g
 Alpine 3 2.34/1.8/2.0mm*6.27g$1.38125g150g176g201g226g251g301g
 New Aero 2.0/3.3/1.06.83g$2.41137g164g191g219g246g273g328g
 Champion 2.0mm6.94g$0.57139g167g194g222g250g278g333g
 Champion 2.0mm*6.94g$0.88139g167g194g222g250g278g333g
 * black spokes
 
SAPIM
SPOKE DESCRIPTION (each)  WEIGHT FOR GIVEN NUMBER OF SPOKES 
type  weight     cost    20 24 28 32 36 40 48
 Laser4.36g$0.9587g105g122g140g157g174g209g
 Laser*4.36g$1.1087g105g122g140g157g174g209g
 CX-Ray4.41g$2.4588g106g123g141g159g176g212g
 CX-Ray*4.41g$2.7588g106g123g141g159g176g212g
 Race 2.0/1.8/2.0mm5.95g$0.79119g143g167g190g214g238g286g
 Race 2.0/1.8/2.0mm*5.95g$0.95119g143g167g190g214g238g286g
 Leader 2.0mm6.72g$0.70134g161g188g215g242g269g323g
 Leader 2.0mm*6.72g$0.80134g161g188g215g242g269g323g
 CX6.72g$134g161g188g215g242g269g323g
 Strong 2.3/2.0/2.0mm6.72g$0.70134g161g188g215g242g269g323g
 Strong 2.3/2.0/2.0mm* 6.72g$0.80134g161g188g215g242g269g323g
 * black spokes
 
WHEELSMITH
SPOKE DESCRIPTION (each)  WEIGHT FOR GIVEN NUMBER OF SPOKES 
type  weight     cost    20 24 28 32 36 40 48
 XL Butted 15/17/15g4.00g$1.0880g96g112g128g144g160g192g
 XL Butted 14/17/14g4.28g$1.0886g103g120g137g154g171g206g
 AE Aero 15/19/15g4.41g$1.2788g103g123g141g159g176g212g
 Straight 1.8mm5.34g$0.52107g128g150g171g192g214g257g
 Double Butted 2.0/1.8/2.0mm5.38g$0.85107g128g150g171g192g214g257g
 Double Butted 2.0/1.8/2.0mm*  5.38g$1.05107g128g150g171g192g214g257g
 Straight 2.0mm6.66g$0.52133g160g186g213g240g266g320g
 Straight 2.0mm*6.66g$0.87133g160g186g213g240g266g320g
 DH Butted 2.3/2.0mm6.88g$1.16138g165g193g220g248g275g330g
 * black spokes
 
MARWI
 SPOKE DESCRIPTION (each)   WEIGHT FOR GIVEN NUMBER OF SPOKES 
type  weight     cost    20 24 28 32 36 40 48
 Titanium 2.0mm 3.72g$74g89g104g119g134g149g179g
 Titanium 2.0mm anodized 3.72g$74g89g104g119g134g149g179g

Rim Construction

The rim is the most important structural piece on a wheel. A strong rim will hold its shape under the most adverse conditions. It provides the framework for the spokes and hub and because of the tire, is the only part of the wheel in close proximity to or touching the ground. All turning and locomotive forces must pass through the wheels.


Clincher and tubular rims - Clincher rims are different than tubular rims because clinchers require a lip on the rim to hold the tire in place. Tubulars do not need this lip as their tires are glued directly onto the rim. From a physics standpoint a tubular rim in the same pattern and overall outer dimensions as a clincher rim will be stronger. Once a tire is mounted, the two rim styles are nearly indistinguishable from each other.


Tubeless rims - New to the market in the past few years, they are slightly different than traditional clincher rims. From the outside they are identical, the difference is the inner profile where the spoke holes are drilled, the valve stem, and maybe the shape of the rim channel where rim tape is applied. Tires are specifically designed for tubeless rims.


All tubeless rims are "clincher" style and many are cross-compatible with regular clicher tires. Tubeless applications are mainly found in the mountain bike market, road tubeless have been slow to catch on. Aftermarket kits can convert many traditional clinchers into tubeless-compatible rims using a special valve stem, rim tape, and tire sealant.


Disc brake-specific rims - Disc brake rims do not need a braking surface like traditional wheels. Aside from that they are constructed much the same way. They may be tubeless, traditional clincher-style, and perhaps even some experimental tubular versions. They are available for all applications with dedicated monster downhill rims that are up to three times wider than regular rims or normal versions for the weekend rider.


Rim characteristics - So many terms, what do they mean: box section, eyeletted, double eyelets, double- or triple-wall, ceramic coated, welded or pinned, it can be confusing. Here are some quick explanations of typical rim construction diction (NOTE: many companies have trademarked and/or patented names for their products, too many for this basic discussion). See image below for a pictorial of some rim designs.


Cross-section of rim profiles


rim profiles


Rim Material

Wood - For a long time there were only wooden tubulars. Some still make wooden rims but these are for a very special and select market. Not many people will risk using wooden rims and for good reason. One of the most prominent wooden rim distributors will not guarantee their rims even when they build the wheels themselves. The wheel will be very cushy and highly susceptible to environmental changes. The construction method has been improved from the old times through the use of laminates or laminating techniques.


Fiberglass - Fiberglass rims were popular for a few years - they could literally taco and bounce back to normal. The spokes took a tremendous strain each time they completely lost tension and snapped back into place. It's been so long since I've seen one of these that I have little performance information on them. The braking surface may not be the best, the ultimate strength of the wheel is questionable. BMX bikes were the only ones I have seen use these rims. But in any case, good luck finding these relics.


Alloy - Alloy rims are the most popular for non-entry level bikes. The addition of other metals like Scandium has lightened them a little but alloy rims are already pretty light. They are relatively inexpensive, have good durability, excellent braking characteristics, and come in oodles of styles, sizes, colors, configurations, profiles, etc.


Steel - Steel rims are usually found on department store bikes. Quite popular before alloy rims stormed onto the scene, yesteryear 27" bikes with steel rims were all the rage. Very heavy, not so good braking, limited sizes, and generally poor quality control have back-shelved these hoops in favor of alloy rims. I don't know of any manufacturer that makes a high-quality steel rim for mass consumption. Aome specialty BMXers swear by steel rims. They are prone to rust and oxidation more than other metals.


Carbon Fiber - Carbon fiber's usage in wheels has not made a better wheel. Lighter, sometimes...better, not so much. Bike junkies are hypnotized, the big buzzword "gotta have it" part: fancy wheels use carbon fiber rims! Due to manufacturing problems with carbon the end result is an inconsistent rim that does not build up as easily, precisely, or with the assurance of long-term viability compared to a metal rim. Spoke tension can be particulary bad.


Carbon rims with alloy braking surfaces have been around for many years. Full carbon rims were available as tubulars only until a few years ago. Full carbon clinchers are particularly challenging because carbon doesn't behave during manufacturing. The rim sidewall was the missing link, incredibly difficult to mold with enough quality and consistency to support the massive forces of clincher tires (check with the manufacturer for maximum allowable tire pressures on their carbon clincher rims).


Now everyone seems to make full carbon clinchers...well, the truth of the matter is that very few factories have the means to make full carbon clinchers. Companies buy them from these select manufacturers and re-brand and re-logo them as their own. With a price tag of $800 to $2500 or more, they should be selected with utmost certainty!


Special brake pads are required for full carbon rims and every manufacturer seems to have their own formula. Lots of choices from cork to rubber, nothing bad about that. Carbon-specific pads are more for preserving the carbon braking surface than increasing braking performance as carbon rims generally lag behind their metal brethren in this category. Carbon rims will get chewed up easier when sand, metal flakes, and other debris embed into the brake pads.


Rim failures are more common on carbon fiber wheels. Failure refers to broken, damaged, or new rims with cracks or other defects which must be fixed. Not just abused or heavily-used rims but brand new ones, too. The failure rate for carbon rims compared to alloy rims is many times higher under all circumstances. Considering carbon rims are much less prevalent than alloy ones....


Watch out for carbon splinters and shards that love to find their way into your fingers, don't hastily wipe the rim down or touch a moving wheel.


Nipples

Their function, at least as it relates to bicycle wheels, is to anchor the spoke to the rim and serve as a means of truing the wheel. Normal nipples come in alloy, brass, some titanium and may be plain or anodized, proprietary nipples are anyone's guess. Most are four-sided, one of three wrench sizes (0.127 inches "black", 0.130 inches "green", and 0.136 inches "red" on the flats), and specifically threaded for 1.8mm (15ga) or 2.0mm (14ga) spokes.


Other variations on the standard nipple use a hex, square, splined, or Torx head instead of the flat sections. Standard nipple length is 12mm but there are 14mm, 16mm, and the very hard-to-find 20mm versions. Nipple threads are exceptionally fine, something like 70 threads per inch, and very shallow. They may be internal or external nipples.


Not all nipples are made the same and the slight differences might work better for some wheels. Specifically the radius where the nipple rests on the spoke bed varies by manufacturer. This will have an effect on the lifespan and ease of turning the nipple.


Brass - These are the most popular nipple for all wheels in the world. They are durable despite brass' softness, less likely to round the flats, strip the threads, split the nipple, highly resistant to galvanic corrosion, and inexpensive. A 32 hole wheel will use about 33 grams of brass nipples. Normal color is silver (nickel-plated brass) but black is available, too.


Alloy - These are weaker and more prone to problems than brass. Even the best preventive measures are not always enough to overcome galvanic corrosion from sweat, salty ocean breezes, and contamination. Seized or damaged nipples can be a real hassle to fix. Expect to spend up to 5 times more for alloy nipples compared to brass. With a weight of only 11 grams for a 32 hole wheel they are an appealing antidote for heavier wheels. Not the best choice for drive side spokes on the rear wheel.


The anodization process produces about a dozen colors. Anodization is more useful, however, to prevent oxidation and harden the surface. Seized nipples are to be expected on stock wheels as they tend to forego lubrication during assembly. Machine-built wheels are notorious for having rounded and damaged nipples. The machine does such a Texas Chainsaw Massacre job on them that I've sometimes replaced all the nipples on a new wheel.


DT Swiss Alloy & Brass Nipple Chart
DESCRIPTION  COLOR   RETAIL  HOLES
 20   24   28   32   36   40   48 
weight in grams below
 2.0 x 12mm brass silver $ tbd 20g  24g  28g  33g  37g  41g  49g 
 2.0 x 12mm brass black $ tbd 20g  24g  28g  33g  37g  41g  49g 
 2.0 x 16mm brass silver $ tbd 26g  31g  36g  41g  46g  51g  62g 
 1.8 x 12mm brass silver $ tbd 21g  25g  29g  34g  38g  42g  50g 
 1.8 x 16mm brass silver $ tbd 26g  32g  37g  42g  47g  53g  63g 
 2.0 x 12mm hex head brass silver $ tbd 19g  23g  27g  31g  35g  39g  47g 
 2.0 x 16mm hex head brass silver $ tbd 24g  29g  34g  39g  44g  49g  59g 
 2.0 x 12mm pro lock silver $ tbd 20g  24g  28g  33g  37g  41g  49g 
 2.0 x 14mm pro lock silver $ tbd 22g  27g  31g  36g  40g  44g  53g 
 2.0 x 16mm pro lock silver $ tbd 26g  31g  36g  41g  46g  51g  62g 
 1.8 x 12mm pro lock silver $ tbd 20g  24g  28g  32g  36g  40g  48g 
 1.8 x 14mm pro lock silver $ tbd 23g  27g  32g  37g  41g  46g  55g 
 1.8 x 16mm pro lock silver $ tbd 26g  32g  37g  42g  47g  53g  63g 
 2.0 x 14mm pro lock hex silver $ tbd 22g  27g  31g  36g  40g  44g  53g 
 2.0 x 12mm alloy silver $ tbd  6g   8g   9g  10g  11g  13g  15g 
 2.0 x 12mm alloy many $ tbd  6g   8g   9g  10g  11g  13g  15g 
 2.0 x 16mm alloy silver $ tbd  8g  10g  11g  13g  15g  16g  20g 
 1.8 x 12mm alloy silver $ tbd  6g   8g   9g  10g  11g  13g  15g 
 1.8 x 12mm alloy many $ tbd  6g   8g   9g  10g  11g  13g  15g 
 2.0 x 14mm pro lock hex alloy   silver $ tbd  7g   9g  10g  12g  13g  14g  17g 
 2.0 x 12mm pro lock alloy silver $ tbd  6g   8g   9g  10g  11g  13g  15g 
 2.0 x 14mm pro lock alloy silver $ tbd  7g   9g  10g  12g  13g  14g  17g 
 2.0 x 16mm pro lock alloy silver $ tbd  8g  10g  11g  13g  15g  16g  20g 
 1.8 x 12mm pro lock alloy silver $ tbd  6g   8g   9g  10g  11g  13g  15g 
 1.8 x 14mm pro lock alloy silver $ tbd  8g   9g  11g  12g  14g  15g  18g 
 1.8 x 16mm pro lock alloy silver $ tbd  8g  10g  12g  14g  15g  17g  20g 

Hubs

There is more variety here than all other parts of a wheel, both for stock wheels and regular off-the-shelf hubs. Proprietary hubs designed for a specific wheel system are a mess of their own. They only work in that specific application and only have general likenesses to a traditional hub.


Hubs are designed for J-bend or straight-pull spokes in either radial or regular lacing patterns. Descriptors include high flange, low flange, canted flange, wide flange, slotted spoke holes, radiused spoke holes, beveled spoke holes.


Hand-Built Wheels

Please see additional information regarding hand-built wheels on my dedicated page page. Some finer points include lifetime truing on all wheels I build and lifetime guarantee on all wheels I spec and build from scratch.


How many stock wheels cater to your exact needs? Here are a few considerations, all of which can be addressed with a custom hand-built wheelset:

Almost without exception properly hand-built wheels provide a more cost-effective, durable, and rational product. They are uniquely tuned and speced specimens customized for the end user based on their weight, riding style, budget, and overall needs.


Be forewarned, the skill of the wheelbuilder is of paramount importance. A poorly speced or haphazardly assembled hand-built wheel will be worse than just about any stock or machine-built wheel! That is a fact, those wheels give us a bad name. Wheel building is a dying art so it gets more challenging to find technicians who stand behind their work and deliver exceptional products.


My daily rider wheelet uses titanium anodized (color, not material) Velocity Aerohead and Aerohead OC rims laced to DT Swiss 240 hubs using DT Stainless spokes (not the lightest ones), 28 holes with a 2-cross front and 3-cross rear, and a sensible mixture of gold anodized alloy and black brass nipples.


Most manufacturers use a generous fudge factor and do not add the weight of rim tape and skewers so in order to compare apples to apples, I will do the same: 1290 grams. Cost? About $800! Most people wouldn't give them a second look, they are subtle sleepers without brazen, colorful graphics. They are almost invisible on my custom Waterford 953 Stainless Steel road bike.


Using tubulars as opposed to clinchers would lighten them even further. Pull some other tricks out of my goodie bag and the weight - remember the weight has the manufacturer fudge factor applied and no rim tape or skewers - drops to just over 1000 grams! Yes, a little more than 1 kilogram! What What WHAT?! Cost? Still around $800!!! So much for the theory that hand-built wheels are heavy or expensive.


Any stock wheelset, even at twice the price, would be hard-pressed to offer so much for so little. Not bad for standard spokes, standard aluminum rims, standard hubs, standard lacing patterns, and standard wheel building practices. Repairs are fairly easy and inexpensive as many shops have parts in stock. They will never become obsolete, will outlast most stock wheels, and do not pigeonhole owners into proprietary purgatory with special tools, methods, parts, locations, and services.


A few assembly steps usually ignored on stock wheels are easily addressed on hand-built wheels. I can't say how many times a new wheel has arrived at the shop only to be put back into the box because it was built without consideration for a functioning, damage-free, truable wheel. Some of these steps and methods are highlighted below.


Thread-locking compound - This prevents the nipples from loosening. It is applied to the spoke threads or dripped into the nipple. Raw linseed oil was used before fancy chemicals, probably still better in many aspects, because the oil hardened into a varnish-like substance. And it's environmentally-friendly, even organic, and inexpensive. Commercially I've found the Wheelsmith Spoke Prep to be the best for new builds and the DT Swiss Spoke Freeze for already-built wheels. Do not use a generic thread lock compound.


Lubrication - Turning a nipple under load creates a lot of friction between the spoke and nipple threads and the head of the nipple and rim. Dry metal is more prone to galling, twisting, and galvanic or general corrosion. Lubricant on the spoke threads and nipples allows the nipples to turn easier throughout their lives and leaves a layer of oil to limit corrosion.


Spoke threads are coated with oil after the spoke prep has dried. After the wheel is laced but before truing, I put a big drop on each nipple/spoke interface and spin the wheel to bathe the nipple from top to bottom especially the parts that contact the rim or eyelet. It might seem counter-intuitive to use thread locker and an oil but it really works.


The heaviest weight and most viscous oil is ideal. Raw linseed oil, the all-natural thread locker, does double duty as an excellent lubricant, too. Clean up with alcohol to get rid of the excess oil. The wheel will continue to "bleed" oil and attract dirt during the initial rides so a few soapy washdowns early in its life will keep those puppies looking new.


Pre-stressing - During the wheel building process the spokes and nipples can wind up, i.e. turning the nipple may twist the spoke instead of tightening or loosening it. A well-built wheel should have negligible twisting forces on the nipples and spokes.


Pre-stressing relieves most of these stresses and forces the wheel components to fully settle. No amount of manual pre-stressing will relieve all pent-up forces but should limit their havoc. The wheel will probably come out of true when all the forces are eventually released during the first few rides.


The least harmful way to pre-stress the wheel is rolling it while pushing directly down on the rim, maybe tilting the wheel sideways to place some angular loads on it. I put pressure on every individual spoke location to ensure it receives maximum benefit. This is done several times during the wheelbuilding process.


A more common but destructive way involves placing the wheel on the ground sideways with a support under the hub or under the edges of the rim, putting considerable downward pressure on the wheel (if the hub is supported, then place pressure on the rim, if the rim is supported, on the hub). This plunging method is less gentle but quicker. It is too drastic and does not allow much fine-tuning, one wrong move and the wheel is damaged.


Set spoke heads - The head of the spoke doesn't settle into the hub completely without some help. The hub may have too thin of a hub shell at the spoke holes, the spokes may have a different bend or longer head, the spoke hole on the hub may be slightly oversized,...a number of factors can affect how well the spoke interfaces with the hub. Special washers can be inserted between the spoke head and the hub to take up extra space.


A special tool called a spoke head punch is placed on the head of each spoke and a smack from a small hammer fully seats the spoke head. Unseated spoke heads weaken the spoke because the force is concentrated on the elbow more than the flat section. Unseated spoke heads can untrue a wheel as they move around or just plain break from the stress.


Align spokes - After setting the spoke head the spoke can be aligned via slight bending to perfectly align with its respective hole on the rim. The hack method of doing this is to wait until the wheel is laced and placing a screwdriver between the spokes and wrenching them up or down - reminds me of a sadistic dentist yanking out wisdom teeth! I prefer to use gentle pressure from my hand on each individual spoke just above the hub body to ensure they are just right.


Measure spoke tension - Spokes must be a certain tightness to prevent the wheel from collapsing either from too little or too much tension. A "loose" wheel feels sloppy and the spokes are not doing their job. A "tight" wheel is going to hold up better but with high tensions, the spoke approaches its working limit. High tensions can make the wheel come out of true more easily and to a greater degree. Park Tool has a decent spoke tensiometer, DT Swiss has better ones with their manual or digital readouts. Manufacturers with proprietary spokes can usually provide a conversion chart to use with spoke tensiometers.


Spoke length calculator - I really only use the DT Swiss spoke calculator found here. There are other ones that do the same thing, they are all essentially based on a simple (well, simple as in straightforward) formula. Some are pre-loaded with values for hubs and rims. All rim and hub manufacturers publish their measurements or you can contact them to get this crucial information, it's not a big secret. It is useful to understand how to measure a rim and hub to attain the necessary values.


Summary

Among the hundreds of wheel designs very few successful ones have strayed from normal construction techniques. Better materials and manufacturing techniques have steadily improved the traditional wheel. Really not much more than that.


Every company has their own twist on wheels and gremlins to go along with it. Two-to-one spoke ratios, crossing spokes over the centerline of the rim, nipples at the hub, internal nipples, special self-locking nipples, dual nipples, high-flange, low-flange, extended flange, threaded flange, oversize flange, paired spoke design, dual-threaded spokes, triple spoke design, special lacing, special tools. Can't we all just get along?


If you understand the ramifications of these faulty designs then ask the manufacturers to clarify their reasoning. Be prepared for a healthy dose of propaganda when they defend their technologies. They sound convincing, very believable, but it's marketing. Prove it to yourself, try to find one wheel manufacturer whose wheels haven't tested superior to all others. They all can't be the best but in their misguided way, they are.


I don't know how much blame to put on the local bike shop who buys into the fallacy of bad wheels. If they don't carry the product their customer will go to the next store and buy it. Maybe they'll never come back. The odds that two neighborhood bike shops will share the whole truth is not gonna happen.


Peer pressure and business concerns - not moral or ethical reasons - among the bike shops ensure that "mum" is the word and they will sell you just about anything to make a buck. The consumer ultimately makes the decision but when they want to buy it, they're gonna buy it, nothing will dissuade them, even if God himself told them otherwise.


With each new wheel design there are new problems. Problems that didn't exist in traditional wheels, problems which demand solutions. The solutions have been very creative but shouldn't be needed in the first place, they are kind of an afterthought on the wheel design. "Oh yeah, now we have to do X to fix this problem, which created another problem, so try solution Y, and when that becomes a problem, jimmy-rig it with Z and talk with the marketing department so we can spin this as an advantage and give our lawyers a heads up, we might need them on this one."



More information soon!


"...so I kicked him in the nuts!" - Eric Cartman of South Park cartoon series



(c) 2011 Bicycle Support By Mark, LLC - all rights reserved; revised 11/22/2011